{"id":46,"date":"2026-06-27T21:20:44","date_gmt":"2026-06-28T01:20:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/powerdynamicspostsecondary\/chapter\/types-of-microaggressions\/"},"modified":"2026-07-14T06:33:46","modified_gmt":"2026-07-14T10:33:46","slug":"types-of-microaggressions","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/chapter\/types-of-microaggressions\/","title":{"raw":"Types of microaggressions","rendered":"Types of microaggressions"},"content":{"raw":"Play the video below to learn more about the topic. A transcript is available for accessibility.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><iframe title=\"Embedded Media titled: Microaggression - Scenario 2\" src=\"https:\/\/umanitoba.yuja.com\/V\/Video?v=1040769&amp;node=5513389&amp;a=49923276&amp;preload=false\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\r\n<strong>Accessible Link Text:<\/strong>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.openedmb.ca\/app\/uploads\/sites\/159\/2025\/08\/Microaggression-scenario-2.pdf#fixme\"><strong>View the full transcript for the video.<\/strong><\/a>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<p id=\"yui_3_18_1_1_1754948041171_56\"><strong>Take a moment and think, in what situations have you seen an example like the one in the video?\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p class=\"p1\">There are various types of microaggressions that people may experience based on race and\/or ethnicity, age, seniority, gender, class, language, nationality, immigration status, accent, surname and culture. They may be based on multiple characteristics and positionalities that define the identities and experiences of people.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">In the Japanese post-secondary context, age and seniority function as a central dimension of social hierarchy, paralleling\u00a0 the role that race plays in the North American source material this resource is adapted from. Entry order into a group, such as year of admission or year of hiring, often determines whose voice carries weight, regardless of skill or knowledge. The examples below therefore include both the original categories and new categories reflecting age- and seniority-based microaggressions common in Japanese institutions.<\/p>\r\nMicroaggressions can take many forms and can be experienced in a variety of ways. What they share is that each act is subtle and easy to deny, which makes them difficult for the person targeted to name or challenge (Williams, 2020). In hierarchical settings, this deniability often takes the form of 'that is just how things are done here.' Here are some examples:\r\n\r\n<strong>Perceived intellectual ability<\/strong>: This refers to assumptions made about a person\u2019s intelligence based on their race, ethnicity or age. For example, assuming an international student cannot follow a lecture, or expressing surprise that a first-year student has a sophisticated idea.\r\n\r\n<b>Perceived adaptability<\/b>: This refers to assumptions that older students, staff, or faculty cannot learn new technologies or methods. Expressing surprise that an older person uses a learning management system, can program and use a GenAI tool competently (\"Sugoi desu ne, at your age!\") is a compliment-framed microaggression.\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Effort-based moral judgment<\/b>: This refers to the assumption that poor performance reflects insufficient effort or weak character rather than circumstances, workload, or teaching quality. Rooted in the <em>konjo<\/em> (fighting spirit) and <em>gaman<\/em> (endurance) ethos of school club activities (<em>bukatsu<\/em>), it appears in comments such as \"students today just need to try harder\" and treats requests for support as a moral failure.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Seniority-based silencing<\/b>: This refers to the assumption that a junior person's ideas carry less weight simply because of their age or when they entered the group. In classrooms and committees, <em>kohai<\/em> (juniors) may be expected to stay quiet or defer to <em>senpai<\/em> (seniors), even when they have relevant knowledge or better ideas.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Generational labelling<\/b>: This involves blanket characterizations of an entire age cohort, such as calling younger people \"<em>yutori sedai<\/em>\" (the relaxed-education generation) to imply they are lazy or fragile, or dismissing a young colleague's concern with \"<em>yutori dakara<\/em>\" (well, that's the <em>yutori<\/em> generation for you).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Prescriptive age roles<\/b>: These are expectations that people behave according to their life stage. Examples include asking a mature student why they are studying \"at their age,\" telling older colleagues to \"make way for the young,\" or assuming a young instructor cannot lead a committee.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Nativist microaggressions<\/b>: These are underlined by assumptions about who truly belongs, such as telling someone to \"go back to your country,\" repeatedly asking \"Where are you really from?\", or complimenting a long-term resident's Japanese (\"Nihongo jouzu desu ne\") in a way that marks them as a permanent outsider.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Stereotype-based joke-telling<\/b>: This involves making jokes that rely on stereotypes about a person's race, nationality, age, or gender, then framing any objection as an inability to take a joke.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Layered, subtle and cumulative<\/b>: Microaggressions are often complex, not immediately obvious, and can build up over time. A single comment may seem trivial, but repeated daily experiences accumulate into significant harm.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Visual and nonverbal representations<\/b>: These include stereotyped images, gestures, and depictions conveyed without words, such as advertising that portrays foreigners as comic figures or older adults as helpless.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Various mediums<\/b>: Microaggressions can appear in textbooks, children's books, advertisements, photos, film and television, manga and anime, social media, and public signage.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Intersectional microaggressions<\/b>: These target people at the intersection of multiple identities, such as older women facing compounded age and gender bias, or working mothers assumed to be less committed to their studies or careers.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Reinforcement of institutional hierarchy<\/b>: Microaggressions can perpetuate ideologies that justify the subordination of certain groups, whether based on race, nationality, age, or seniority, by making unequal treatment feel normal and unremarkable.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.375rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"1:1-1:29;0-28\">Further Reading (optional)<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"3:1-3:104;30-133\">For readers who want to explore these ideas in more depth, the following sources informed this chapter.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"5:1-5:43;135-177\">Foundations of microaggression research<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"7:1-8:156;179-435\">Sue, D. W. (2010). <em>Microaggressions in everyday life: Race, gender, and sexual orientation<\/em>. Wiley. The foundational text that established the modern framework and taxonomy used in this chapter. A second edition (Sue &amp; Spanierman, 2020) is also available.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"10:1-11:173;437-667\">\u30b9\u30fc, D. W.\uff08\u8457\uff09\u51fa\u53e3\u771f\u7d00\u5b50\uff08\u76e3\u8a33\uff09(2020).\u300e\u65e5\u5e38\u751f\u6d3b\u306b\u57cb\u3081\u8fbc\u307e\u308c\u305f\u30de\u30a4\u30af\u30ed\u30a2\u30b0\u30ec\u30c3\u30b7\u30e7\u30f3\u300f\u660e\u77f3\u66f8\u5e97. The Japanese translation of Sue's book, supervised by Professor Makiko Deguchi of Sophia University. Recommended for readers who prefer to study these concepts in Japanese.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"13:1-13:44;669-712\">Microaggressions in the Japanese context<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"15:1-15:168;714-881\">Deguchi, M. (2016). Microaggressions in a Japanese context. In <em>Readings on diversity issues: From hate speech to identity and privilege in Japan<\/em> (pp. 130-139). Lulu.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"17:1-18:158;883-1240\">Deguchi, M. (2023). Making majority privilege visible: Implications for teaching a college course on positionality in Japan. <em>Sophia Journal of Asian, African, and Middle Eastern Studies, 41<\/em>, 41-56. Directly connected to the video featured in this book; explains the positionality framework behind the privilege and majority-group concepts used throughout.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"20:1-21:109;1242-1474\">Arudou, D. (2012, May 1). Yes, I can use chopsticks: The everyday 'microaggressions' that grind us down. <em>The Japan Times<\/em>. An early and influential popular account of nativist microaggressions experienced by non-Japanese residents.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"23:1-23:38;1476-1513\">Age, seniority, and effort culture<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"25:1-26:115;1515-1751\">Cave, P. (2004). Bukatsud\u014d: The educational role of Japanese school clubs. <em>Journal of Japanese Studies, 30<\/em>(2), 383-415. The standard English-language introduction to how club activities shape norms of effort, hierarchy, and seniority.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"28:1-28:189;1753-1941\">Miller, A. L. (2013). <em>Discourses of discipline: An anthropology of corporal punishment in Japan's schools and sports<\/em>. Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"30:1-31:120;1943-2090\">\u5185\u7530\u826f\uff08\u7de8\uff09(2021).\u300e\u90e8\u6d3b\u52d5\u306e\u793e\u4f1a\u5b66\u300f\u5ca9\u6ce2\u66f8\u5e97. A sociological examination of bukatsu and its costs, edited by Japan's most prominent critic of club activity overwork.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"33:1-34:102;2092-2286\">Palmore, E. B., &amp; Maeda, D. (1985). <em>The honorable elders revisited<\/em>. Duke University Press. A classic study questioning the assumption that Japan's respect-for-elders tradition prevents ageism.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"36:1-36:25;2288-2312\">Critical perspectives<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"38:1-39:138;2314-2588\">Lilienfeld, S. O. (2017). Microaggressions: Strong claims, inadequate evidence. <em>Perspectives in Psychological Science, 12<\/em>(1), 138-169. The most cited methodological critique of microaggression research. Included so readers can evaluate the scholarly debate for themselves.\r\n\r\nWilliams, M. T. (2020). Microaggressions: Clarification, evidence, and impact. <em>Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15<\/em>(1), 3-26. The major response to Lilienfeld's critique, from a University of Ottawa researcher. Read alongside the article above for both sides of the debate.\r\n\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"44:1-44:40;2872-2911\">Canadian and Australian perspectives<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"46:1-47:163;2913-3320\">Clark, D. A., Kleiman, S., Spanierman, L. B., Isaac, P., &amp; Poolokasingham, G. (2014). \"Do you live in a teepee?\" Aboriginal students' experiences with racial microaggressions in Canada. <em>Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 7<\/em>(2), 112-125. A widely cited Canadian campus study; a useful comparison point for how microaggressions target Indigenous students in the country the source material comes from.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"49:1-50:155;3322-3653\">Henry, F., Dua, E., James, C. E., Kobayashi, A., Li, P., Ramos, H., &amp; Smith, M. S. (2017). <em>The equity myth: Racialization and Indigeneity at Canadian universities<\/em>. UBC Press. A major national study of how racialized and Indigenous faculty experience Canadian universities, including everyday and institutional forms of exclusion.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"52:1-53:148;3655-3984\">Li, Y. (2019). \"It's not discrimination\": Chinese migrant workers' perceptions of and reactions to racial microaggressions in Australia. <em>Sociological Perspectives, 62<\/em>(4), 554-571. An Australian study of how targets themselves interpret and respond to microaggressions, useful for discussing why such incidents often go unnamed.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"55:1-56:162;3986-4282\">Australian Human Rights Commission. (2021). <em>What's age got to do with it? A snapshot of ageism across the Australian lifespan<\/em>. AHRC. A national survey of ageism affecting both younger and older Australians, supporting the two-directional view of age-based microaggressions used in this chapter.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"55:1-56:162;3986-4282\"><\/p>","rendered":"<p>Play the video below to learn more about the topic. A transcript is available for accessibility.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"Embedded Media titled: Microaggression - Scenario 2\" src=\"https:\/\/umanitoba.yuja.com\/V\/Video?v=1040769&amp;node=5513389&amp;a=49923276&amp;preload=false\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><strong>Accessible Link Text:<\/strong><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.openedmb.ca\/app\/uploads\/sites\/159\/2025\/08\/Microaggression-scenario-2.pdf#fixme\"><strong>View the full transcript for the video.<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p id=\"yui_3_18_1_1_1754948041171_56\"><strong>Take a moment and think, in what situations have you seen an example like the one in the video?\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\">There are various types of microaggressions that people may experience based on race and\/or ethnicity, age, seniority, gender, class, language, nationality, immigration status, accent, surname and culture. They may be based on multiple characteristics and positionalities that define the identities and experiences of people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\">In the Japanese post-secondary context, age and seniority function as a central dimension of social hierarchy, paralleling\u00a0 the role that race plays in the North American source material this resource is adapted from. Entry order into a group, such as year of admission or year of hiring, often determines whose voice carries weight, regardless of skill or knowledge. The examples below therefore include both the original categories and new categories reflecting age- and seniority-based microaggressions common in Japanese institutions.<\/p>\n<p>Microaggressions can take many forms and can be experienced in a variety of ways. What they share is that each act is subtle and easy to deny, which makes them difficult for the person targeted to name or challenge (Williams, 2020). In hierarchical settings, this deniability often takes the form of &#8216;that is just how things are done here.&#8217; Here are some examples:<\/p>\n<p><strong>Perceived intellectual ability<\/strong>: This refers to assumptions made about a person\u2019s intelligence based on their race, ethnicity or age. For example, assuming an international student cannot follow a lecture, or expressing surprise that a first-year student has a sophisticated idea.<\/p>\n<p><b>Perceived adaptability<\/b>: This refers to assumptions that older students, staff, or faculty cannot learn new technologies or methods. Expressing surprise that an older person uses a learning management system, can program and use a GenAI tool competently (&#8220;Sugoi desu ne, at your age!&#8221;) is a compliment-framed microaggression.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Effort-based moral judgment<\/b>: This refers to the assumption that poor performance reflects insufficient effort or weak character rather than circumstances, workload, or teaching quality. Rooted in the <em>konjo<\/em> (fighting spirit) and <em>gaman<\/em> (endurance) ethos of school club activities (<em>bukatsu<\/em>), it appears in comments such as &#8220;students today just need to try harder&#8221; and treats requests for support as a moral failure.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Seniority-based silencing<\/b>: This refers to the assumption that a junior person&#8217;s ideas carry less weight simply because of their age or when they entered the group. In classrooms and committees, <em>kohai<\/em> (juniors) may be expected to stay quiet or defer to <em>senpai<\/em> (seniors), even when they have relevant knowledge or better ideas.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Generational labelling<\/b>: This involves blanket characterizations of an entire age cohort, such as calling younger people &#8220;<em>yutori sedai<\/em>&#8221; (the relaxed-education generation) to imply they are lazy or fragile, or dismissing a young colleague&#8217;s concern with &#8220;<em>yutori dakara<\/em>&#8221; (well, that&#8217;s the <em>yutori<\/em> generation for you).<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Prescriptive age roles<\/b>: These are expectations that people behave according to their life stage. Examples include asking a mature student why they are studying &#8220;at their age,&#8221; telling older colleagues to &#8220;make way for the young,&#8221; or assuming a young instructor cannot lead a committee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Nativist microaggressions<\/b>: These are underlined by assumptions about who truly belongs, such as telling someone to &#8220;go back to your country,&#8221; repeatedly asking &#8220;Where are you really from?&#8221;, or complimenting a long-term resident&#8217;s Japanese (&#8220;Nihongo jouzu desu ne&#8221;) in a way that marks them as a permanent outsider.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Stereotype-based joke-telling<\/b>: This involves making jokes that rely on stereotypes about a person&#8217;s race, nationality, age, or gender, then framing any objection as an inability to take a joke.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Layered, subtle and cumulative<\/b>: Microaggressions are often complex, not immediately obvious, and can build up over time. A single comment may seem trivial, but repeated daily experiences accumulate into significant harm.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Visual and nonverbal representations<\/b>: These include stereotyped images, gestures, and depictions conveyed without words, such as advertising that portrays foreigners as comic figures or older adults as helpless.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Various mediums<\/b>: Microaggressions can appear in textbooks, children&#8217;s books, advertisements, photos, film and television, manga and anime, social media, and public signage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Intersectional microaggressions<\/b>: These target people at the intersection of multiple identities, such as older women facing compounded age and gender bias, or working mothers assumed to be less committed to their studies or careers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>Reinforcement of institutional hierarchy<\/b>: Microaggressions can perpetuate ideologies that justify the subordination of certain groups, whether based on race, nationality, age, or seniority, by making unequal treatment feel normal and unremarkable.<\/p>\n<h1 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.375rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"1:1-1:29;0-28\">Further Reading (optional)<\/h1>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"3:1-3:104;30-133\">For readers who want to explore these ideas in more depth, the following sources informed this chapter.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"5:1-5:43;135-177\">Foundations of microaggression research<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"7:1-8:156;179-435\">Sue, D. W. (2010). <em>Microaggressions in everyday life: Race, gender, and sexual orientation<\/em>. Wiley. The foundational text that established the modern framework and taxonomy used in this chapter. A second edition (Sue &amp; Spanierman, 2020) is also available.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"10:1-11:173;437-667\">\u30b9\u30fc, D. W.\uff08\u8457\uff09\u51fa\u53e3\u771f\u7d00\u5b50\uff08\u76e3\u8a33\uff09(2020).\u300e\u65e5\u5e38\u751f\u6d3b\u306b\u57cb\u3081\u8fbc\u307e\u308c\u305f\u30de\u30a4\u30af\u30ed\u30a2\u30b0\u30ec\u30c3\u30b7\u30e7\u30f3\u300f\u660e\u77f3\u66f8\u5e97. The Japanese translation of Sue&#8217;s book, supervised by Professor Makiko Deguchi of Sophia University. Recommended for readers who prefer to study these concepts in Japanese.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"13:1-13:44;669-712\">Microaggressions in the Japanese context<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"15:1-15:168;714-881\">Deguchi, M. (2016). Microaggressions in a Japanese context. In <em>Readings on diversity issues: From hate speech to identity and privilege in Japan<\/em> (pp. 130-139). Lulu.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"17:1-18:158;883-1240\">Deguchi, M. (2023). Making majority privilege visible: Implications for teaching a college course on positionality in Japan. <em>Sophia Journal of Asian, African, and Middle Eastern Studies, 41<\/em>, 41-56. Directly connected to the video featured in this book; explains the positionality framework behind the privilege and majority-group concepts used throughout.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"20:1-21:109;1242-1474\">Arudou, D. (2012, May 1). Yes, I can use chopsticks: The everyday &#8216;microaggressions&#8217; that grind us down. <em>The Japan Times<\/em>. An early and influential popular account of nativist microaggressions experienced by non-Japanese residents.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"23:1-23:38;1476-1513\">Age, seniority, and effort culture<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"25:1-26:115;1515-1751\">Cave, P. (2004). Bukatsud\u014d: The educational role of Japanese school clubs. <em>Journal of Japanese Studies, 30<\/em>(2), 383-415. The standard English-language introduction to how club activities shape norms of effort, hierarchy, and seniority.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"28:1-28:189;1753-1941\">Miller, A. L. (2013). <em>Discourses of discipline: An anthropology of corporal punishment in Japan&#8217;s schools and sports<\/em>. Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"30:1-31:120;1943-2090\">\u5185\u7530\u826f\uff08\u7de8\uff09(2021).\u300e\u90e8\u6d3b\u52d5\u306e\u793e\u4f1a\u5b66\u300f\u5ca9\u6ce2\u66f8\u5e97. A sociological examination of bukatsu and its costs, edited by Japan&#8217;s most prominent critic of club activity overwork.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"33:1-34:102;2092-2286\">Palmore, E. B., &amp; Maeda, D. (1985). <em>The honorable elders revisited<\/em>. Duke University Press. A classic study questioning the assumption that Japan&#8217;s respect-for-elders tradition prevents ageism.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"36:1-36:25;2288-2312\">Critical perspectives<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"38:1-39:138;2314-2588\">Lilienfeld, S. O. (2017). Microaggressions: Strong claims, inadequate evidence. <em>Perspectives in Psychological Science, 12<\/em>(1), 138-169. The most cited methodological critique of microaggression research. Included so readers can evaluate the scholarly debate for themselves.<\/p>\n<p>Williams, M. T. (2020). Microaggressions: Clarification, evidence, and impact. <em>Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15<\/em>(1), 3-26. The major response to Lilienfeld&#8217;s critique, from a University of Ottawa researcher. Read alongside the article above for both sides of the debate.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\" data-sourcepos=\"44:1-44:40;2872-2911\">Canadian and Australian perspectives<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"46:1-47:163;2913-3320\">Clark, D. A., Kleiman, S., Spanierman, L. B., Isaac, P., &amp; Poolokasingham, G. (2014). &#8220;Do you live in a teepee?&#8221; Aboriginal students&#8217; experiences with racial microaggressions in Canada. <em>Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 7<\/em>(2), 112-125. A widely cited Canadian campus study; a useful comparison point for how microaggressions target Indigenous students in the country the source material comes from.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"49:1-50:155;3322-3653\">Henry, F., Dua, E., James, C. E., Kobayashi, A., Li, P., Ramos, H., &amp; Smith, M. S. (2017). <em>The equity myth: Racialization and Indigeneity at Canadian universities<\/em>. UBC Press. A major national study of how racialized and Indigenous faculty experience Canadian universities, including everyday and institutional forms of exclusion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"52:1-53:148;3655-3984\">Li, Y. (2019). &#8220;It&#8217;s not discrimination&#8221;: Chinese migrant workers&#8217; perceptions of and reactions to racial microaggressions in Australia. <em>Sociological Perspectives, 62<\/em>(4), 554-571. An Australian study of how targets themselves interpret and respond to microaggressions, useful for discussing why such incidents often go unnamed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"55:1-56:162;3986-4282\">Australian Human Rights Commission. (2021). <em>What&#8217;s age got to do with it? A snapshot of ageism across the Australian lifespan<\/em>. AHRC. A national survey of ageism affecting both younger and older Australians, supporting the two-directional view of age-based microaggressions used in this chapter.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal\" data-sourcepos=\"55:1-56:162;3986-4282\">\n","protected":false},"author":1,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-46","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":44,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/46","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/46\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":424,"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/46\/revisions\/424"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/44"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/46\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=46"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=46"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=46"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/openstudio.pub\/power-dynamics-postsecondary\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=46"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}